Tuesday, November 11, 2014

Plants-Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria and Glomus

“A little about me and my blog”
Welcome to my blog. My name is Noor Sairafi and I am a grad student at the Biology Department at Western Illinois University. My research is about plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria. I am glad to present in this blog, my grad project in Mycology class with Dr. Andrea Porras-Alfaro.  I will review PGPR (Plant-Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria), their nteractions with fungi and plants. I hope you find this informative and useful.


Introduction
         Plants do not usually live alone, they are associated with many microorganisms in a symbiotic relationship (Southworth, 2012).  Probably hundreds to millions organisms are interacting with plants. They could be associated with roots or different parts of the plant such as leaves and stems. Microorganisms (fungi or bacteria) have a major impact on plants and the ecosystem. The interactions of fungi and bacteria help promote the growth of plants and also help build resistance that protects plants from soil borne diseases (Krings et al, 2012).  In addition, some of the interactions between organisms are deleterious, however, other have a superficial impact on the overall fitness and growth.

Bacterial interaction
Plants growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR)
         PGPR colonize plant roots and correspond to a complex group of microorganisms in the soil (Persello-Cartieaux et al, 2003).  Bacteria (PGPR) have been effectively used in this application to stimulate plant growth or to reduce the damage of the soil borne infections. Plants-growth promoting rhizobacteria affect plants directly or indirectly. The direct effects of PGPR include enhanced provision of nutrients and the production of phytohormones. Indirect effects include aspects of biological control such as the production of antibiotics and iron-chelating siderophores and the induction of plant resistance mechanisms (Persello-Cartieaux et al, 2003).
           
          PGPR or rhizobacterial agents belonging to some bacteria are antagonistic controlled agents affecting plants and microbes (Labuschage et al, 2010). Rhizobacterial normally trigger plant systemic acquired resistance (ISR) to help provide protection against microbes and bacterial inoculation. The ISR serves as a shield against plants diseases specifically in the roots (Deverndra et al, 2009). PGPR provides ways to supply nutrients and growth hormones to plants through the rhizosphere, the region of the soil that directly affects root secretion (Labuschage et al, 2010). Some of the important reasons to use PGPR include the posibility to improve crop losses related  to soil borne diseases, the reduction of high production costs due to fertilizer costs and the new global phenomenon toward applying environmentally friendly production methods (Labuschgen et al, 2010).

Fungal Interaction
Glomus, Arbusclar mycorrhizal fungi
Description
        Glomus is a genus of arbuscular mycorrrhizal fungi that belong to the phylum Glomeromycota, which consists of about 230 species (Oehi et al, 2011). Arbuscular mycorrrhizal fungi are the most ancient and widespread fungi that are associated with plants roots in symbiotic relationships.
         Arbuscular mycorrihzal fungi are represented in the following genera: Glomus, Acaulospora, Entrophosphora,Gigaspora and Scuterosora. Traditional classification is based on thesize, shape and wall structure of spores. Glomeromycota spores are spherical or ovoid, and they form in the end of the hyphae in one or two layers (Sharma et al, 2008). The spores measure between 30 and 50 micrometers in size and they can germinate in the soil or inside the host roots. 
          Glomus has very specificify biological interactions with plant roots. The host (plants) provides carbon sources and energy in the form of carbohydrates to the fungus, while the fungus supplies the host (plants) with the fundamental minerals that it absorbs from the soil (Mohammed, 2010). The obligated symbiotic relationship between Glomeromycota species and roots is very important and vital for the fungus and plant survival.
          Glomus produces spores asexually. Spores bear from the tip of the hyphae. It could be generated within the host root or outside the root in the rhizophere area. When the spores germinate in the soil they make a special structure (tube) penetrates the root epidermis allowing the fungi to colonize roots. They will live inside root cell wall and produce vesicles that function as food storage (Colliton and Cooch, 2010).

 Habitat
         Arbuscular mycorhizal fungi such as Glomus are soil fungi. They can be found in different terrestrial and aquatic habitats. The can also grow in low land tropical rain forest or in high altitudes (Raghuwanshi and Upadhyay, 2010). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi cannot survive without a plant host in their life cycle. Therefore, it is impossible to grow fungus in the lab without a host (plants) (Boundless Microbilogy, 2014).

The Ecological importance of Glomus and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
           Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi make up of mutualistic symbionts on the planet (St-Arnaud and Vujanovic, 2007).  Many reports showed that plants in association with AMF have shown the significant improvement in growth rate, dry weight and mineral content following infection, particularly of plants growing on nutrient-deficient soils (Webster and Weber, 2007). Glomus can penetrate cell wall of the host roots; therefore, the fungus helps with transferred materials and nutrients such as phosphorus (P), zinc (ZC) and nitrogen (N) (Smith and Smith, 2011). These nutrients are essential for plant health and growth. The fungus also benefits from the host by getting carbon. In this respect, mycorrhizal fungi have a vital role in nutrient cycling in the ecosystem. The estimation of host plant organic input to AMF range from 1% to 20% (Colliton and Cooch, 2010). Moreover, Glomus have additional positive relationships with plants such as protecting plants from chemical products in the soil and pests in the environment. In addition, Glomus enhances and promotes plant growth and increases their overall fitness. Another significant role of Glomus (AMF) species are their ability to protect the plant host from soil borne diseases (Colliton and Cooch, 2010).

The interactions between bacteria and AM fungi
               It is known that bacteria are able to catalyze plants growth through direct or indirect interactions with plant roots. However, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) also can stimulate plants growth through symbiotic relationships with root. Recently, there are some studies have been done on the effects of bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi and their combined beneficial impact on plant. Bacteria and AMF interactions occur in the zone of soil surrounding the roots and fungal hyphae, it is commonly known as “mycorrhizosphere”. The interactions between bacteria and AMF have potentially beneficial function, where PGPR are involved. Some bacteria have been shown directly effects on AMF germination and growth rate; therefore, the beneficial impact on plant could be achieved throughout the AMF association. On the other hand, other bacteria can influence plant directly, for example increasing root cell permeability. The mutualistic relationship between some between together and AMF may generate a more indirect synergism that backup plant growth, including enhancement of root branching, nutrient pathogens fungi (Veronica et al, 2006).








 (A) A root tip of Cedrela Odorata colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi showing vesicles.

(B) A root of Terminalia Amazonia showing vesicles and hyphae.




References
1.     Peresello-Cartieaux, F., Nussaume, L. and Robaglia, C. (2003). Plant, cell & Environment. Volume 26, Issue 2, Pages 189-199.
2.     Southworth, D. (2012). Biocomplexity of Plant-Fungal Interactions. Published by John Wiley& Sons, Inc.
3.     Krings, M., Thomas, N. T., and Dotzler, N. (2012).  Fungal Endophtes as a driving force in land plant evolution: Evidence from the Fossil Record. 
4.     Labuschage,  N., Pretorius, T., and Idris,  A.H. (2010). Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria Agents soil- borneplant disease. Retrieved (Oct 19 2014) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225358583_Plant_Growth_Promoting_Rhizobacteria_as_Biocontrol_Agents_Against_Soil-Borne_Plant_Diseases
5.     Keith A. (2013). Assessing the diversity of arbuscular mycorrihzal fungi in semiarid shrublands dominated by Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis. 
6.     Kitahara,  R., Ikeda, Y., and Shimura, H.,  Masuta, C., and Ezawa, T. (2014). A unique mitovirus from Glomeromycota, the phylum of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal fungi.  
7.     Sharama, S.Parkash, V., and Aggarwal, A. (2008). Glomales I: A Monograph of glomus ssp. (Glomaceae) in the sunflower Rhizosphere of Haryana, India. 
8.     Raghuwanshi, R., and Upadyay, R.S. (2010). Status of mycorrhizal fungi in a saline alkaline habitat. An international Journal. Retrieved (Oct 26 2014) http://researchtrend.net/tas21/14%20RICHA.pdf 
9.     Srivastava, K., Methta, C. M., and Sharma, A. K. (2014). Effect of different Glomus species of common habitat on growth and nutrient content of different genotypes of finger millet (Elevasine coracana L.). Journal of scientific. Retrieved (Oct 26 2014) http://www.wudpeckerresearchjournals.org/JSRR/pdf/2014/May/Srivastava%20et%20al.pdf   
10.   Colliton, R., and Cooch, A. (2010).  Glomus. Retrieved (Oct 27 2014) from https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Glomus  
12.  Webster, J,. and Weber, R. (2007). Introduction to fungi. Third Edition.
13.  St-Arnaud M and Vujanovic V. (2007). Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis on Plant Diseaes and Pests.
14.  Abbott Lyn. Mycorrhizal fungi.  Retrieved (Oct 27 2014) from http://www.soilhealth.com/soil-health/biology/benefit/fungi/
15.  Corperter, L. (2001). Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Retrieved (Nov 11, 14) from http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~flcarpen/mycorrhizal.html
16.   Oehl, F., Sieverding , E., Palenzuela, J,. Ineichen, K, and Alves da Silva, G.  (2011). Advamces on Glomeromycota taxonomy and classification. Retrieved (Dec 08 2014) from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3359817/
17. Miransari, M. (2010).  Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and soil Microbes. Retrieved (Dec 08 2014) from http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/mycorrhizal_biotechnology_902.pdf
18. Devendra, K., Choudhary., Bhavdish,. N., and Johri. (2009). Interction of Bacillus spp. And plants- with special reference to induced systemic resistance (ISR). (Dec 08 2014) from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0944501308000566
19. Artursson, V., Roger, D. F., and Jansson, J.k. (2006). Interctions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria and their potential for stimulating plant growth. (Dec 10 201 4) http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=be14e976-9227-4406-bd60-8765d88f0c43%40sessionmgr4005&vid=5&hid=4106